In contrast, non-domesticated animals are generally considered not to belong to humans, with some exceptions such as zoos and circuses.
But whether or not they are considered property of humans, they are not considered to have a right not to be killed by humans. Without this right, Francione argues, animals will never receive the respect and consideration they deserve as fellow sentient beings.
Under capitalism, workers are exploited but usually enjoy a variety of rights. In particular, they have the right not to be killed, which can be taken away in jurisdictions with the death penalty.
In most, but not all, countries, they have the right to protect their health and welfare. In many countries, we have additional rights as citizens, such as forming trade unions and other associations, freely owning property, voting, speaking, writing, traveling, and practicing our religion.
In some countries (but not many) they have special employment rights, such as not being unfairly dismissed and being paid the minimum wage.
brink
What they don’t have, of course, is the right not to be exploited. As with animal exploitation, without this right, workers are generally not respected as wealth creators. In fact, they are systematically excluded from owning the wealth they create through their labor.
As citizens they may enjoy relatively high standards of living and freedom, but as workers they are likely to lack control over their work and ownership of the products of their labor.
Therefore, Francione’s argument quoted above can be reinterpreted as follows. The property situation of workers under capitalism must result in the devaluation or disregard of their interests, which must be considered equally. [of their intrinsic value as human beings] Impossible as a practical matter. The similarities between human exploitation and animal exploitation are clearly visible here.
This argument can also be extended to the use of nature. Although Marx’s interest was primarily in humans and Francione’s in animals, all intelligent beings are embedded in a particular ecosystem, and that ecosystem includes both humans and non-humans. There are complex relationships between animals, plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, and viruses. Not to mention all kinds of inorganic materials.
Many different scholars have detailed how the unchecked exploitation of the natural world has brought us to the brink of catastrophic climate change and ecosystem collapse. For example, Moore (2015), Foster and Clark (2020), and McGuire (2022).
extinction
It’s not just animals that are at risk of extinction, but the very fabric of life. As human activities increasingly invade ecosystems of all kinds, it becomes increasingly difficult for actors in those systems to follow their natural life paths.
The term “ecocide” was invented to draw attention to this issue and emphasize the need to establish the right of ecosystems not to be destroyed. It emphasizes the need not only to protect ecosystems, but also to hold accountable those responsible for their destruction (Whyte, 2020).
However, as Merlin Sheldrake (2020) showed in the case of mycorrhizal fungal networks, the ecosystem is still poorly understood.
The identity of ecosystems as entities or moral agents is difficult to determine precisely. Obviously this cannot be reversed, so the focus tends to be on avoiding species extinction.
ecosystem
However, the loss of fertile soil due to various reasons such as (for example) over-cultivation or spraying of herbicides, fungicides and pesticides is also a type of destruction of nature.
Importantly, humans have a responsibility to manage ecosystems for the benefit of everyone. This discussion of responsible ecosystem management applies to all human activities that impact ecosystems, especially fossil fuel combustion and extraction (Veltmeyer and Petras, 2014; Howe, 2021).
Veganism is clearly a step in the right direction here, in that it necessitates an end to industrial animal agriculture, which has a negative impact on the environment.
But that’s not enough. Because arable farming and horticulture can also be harmful to ecosystems, unless only agroecological methods, practices that cooperate with, rather than harm, existing ecosystems, are adopted. This condition actually makes it possible to abolish all exploitation: humans, animals, and nature more broadly.
References
J.B. Foster (2020) The plunder of nature: Capitalism and ecological fissures. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Francione, G. (2020) Why veganism matters: the moral value of animals. New York/Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press.
Howe, D. (2021) From extraction to extinction: Rethinking our relationship with the Earth’s natural resources. Salford: Sarabande.
McGuire, B. (2022) Greenhouse Earth: Resident Guide. London: Icon Books Ltd.
Moore, J. (2015) Capitalism in the web of life: ecology and capital accumulation. London: Verso.
Feldmeyer, H., and Petras, J. (2014). The new extractivism: a post-neoliberal development model or 21st century imperialism? London/New York: Zed Books.
White, D. (2020) Ecocide: Kill the corporations before they kill us.. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
this author
Peter Somerville is Emeritus Professor of Social Policy in the School of Social Sciences at the University of Lincoln.
